Monsoon Winds to the "Land of Gold"
For more than three thousand years, the ancient world was linked by elaborate trading routes that linked the Mediterranean world with the faraway lands of Asia. As caravans carried exotic goods on the Silk Road to burgeoning markets in the west, a parallel ocean trade had existed for centuries. A complex network of sailing ships, dependent on seasonal monsoon winds, carried cargoes from islands in Southeast Asia to ports throughout the ancient world. The demand for these fragrant spices, worth their weight in gold, spurred a search for routes to the mysterious “Golden Kherso-nese.” The location, Chryse, which means “land of gold” was concealed for centuries by merchants eager to protect their lucrative trade. Geographers, astronomers, and sailors soon created the maps that charted new understandings of our world.
This integrated unit introduces students to the trading networks and geographic factors that influenced the maritime spice trade from Southeast Asia to the Roman Empire and Han China during the period 100 BC to 100 AD. Students work in coopera-tive groups in a series of activities to learn how the ancient world was inter-connected by this sea trade. This unit would be most effective if taught at the end of a yearlong study of ancient world history or as an introductory unit to the Age of Exploration. It presumes a basic knowledge of the major civilizations of the ancient world.
GRADE LEVEL: 6th or 7th TIME REQUIRED: Two weeks
WORLD HISTORY STANDARDS:
6.6 “Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures of the early civilizations of
China. (7) Cite the significance of the trans-Eurasian "silk roads" in the period of the Han Dynasty and the Roman
Empire and their locations.”
6.7 “Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures during the development of
Rome. (3) Identify the location of and the political and geographic reasons for the growth of Roman territories and
expansion of the empire, including how the empire fostered economic growth through the use of currency and trade
routes.”
FOCUS QUESTION: How did spices get to the Roman Empire from Southeast Asia in ancient times?
OBJECTIVES
Geographic: • Recognize environmental factors that influenced maritime trade routes and the establishment of major trading
centers in classical times.
• Identify the major imports and exports of the cultures along the coastal trade routes.
• Identify the major regions and islands that comprise Southeast Asia.
Historical: • Evaluate perceptions of the ancient world (especially the fabled “Golden Khersonese”) through ancient maps and
primary source travelers’ accounts.
• Discuss implications of archaeological evidence recently discovered.
Economic: • Study the spices that were imported from Southeast Asia that were the objects of international trade.
• Recognize the economic factors that effected the trade in luxury goods. Experience the principles of “market
supply, scarcity, and demand” in a simulated trading activity.
LESSON
Introductory Activities
ANTICIPATING QUESTIONS
This unit begins by asking students to brainstorm lists of everyday natural products that we take for granted today. The class can work in three groups or this can be done as a whole class activity. Groups could also make a collage of images from magazines to develop the idea.
• Begin by naming favorite dishes they enjoy for dinner - what is popular? Why? Try to identify specific ingredients or
flavors that account for their love of these foods. Encourage them to name foods that may have originated in other
cultures. What unusual ingredients can they name? Can they name the countries where specific foods or spices
originated?
• Do the above activity with fragrances. See if the students can list all the ways our society uses scents (perfume,
cologne, lotions, room deodorants, incense, potpourri). Can they name specific fragrances or brand names? Are some
scents associated with certain cultures or countries?
Display the class list so that more things can be added as the unit progresses.
• The third prompt asks students to name all those items (and ingredients) that are used as medicines. Broaden this
category to include poisons, fumigants, insecticides and ointments. Ask the class if they know where the ingredients
originate. (As an alternative, the teacher can bring a bag of groceries to introduce the unit. Unpack items such as olive
oil, chocolate, tuna, cereal, fragrant lotion, hand soap, cough syrup and insecticide. Ask or assign students to determine
where each item came from.
Information on the history and current uses of individual spices at the Spice Encyclopedia web page posted by today's spice merchants at Spice Advice Encyclopedia
Introductory Activity II: ARTIFACTS
The second introductory activity creates anticipation and gives the class some hints about what they’re about to learn.
Open your “artifact box” (which you’ve pre-pared in advance) that contains the following:
• Roman coin
• a packet of cloves or peppercorns
• excerpt from the Periplus
• an Egyptian glass bead
• incense
• a piece of silk.
As each item is revealed, have the students consider the collection and pretend that they are archaeologists. Tell the class
that this mysterious box, found buried along the Malabar Coast in Southwest India, has come to your classroom for analysis.
What “story” does this box tell?
What does the Roman coin reveal?
What does the text tell?
Where did silk originate?
Why are the items together?
Why were they found in India?
The teacher should encourage ideas that mention a range of goods from different, distant cultures. Travel by ship and some knowledge of coastal geography and monsoon winds are revealed by the Periplus. Focus student inquiry on these questions:
What was carried by sea?
What is the meaning of the spices?
How were these items used?
Might the items indicate the barter or trade?
Who were the traders or sailors?
What cultures would be involved in moving goods?
How far did they travel?
How far did the goods travel?
Was this the final destination?
Writing Prompt
After the students express their various ideas, ask them to write an imaginary story that explains the “find.” (The discovery of this collection of artifacts is fictional; they cannot be identified precisely. This “into”activity is designed to interest and inspire the class for the investigation that follows).
Developing the Topic I: HISTORIC MAPS
The artifact box activity above should show the interconnectedness of cultures and some exchange of goods. It should raise questions about the actual geography. (Where are we? Who were these people? What did they know?) The examination
of historic maps gives students the opportunity to speculate on Greco-Roman perceptions of the “shape of the world.”
(Note to the teacher: these maps are reconstructions made 1,200 to 1,300 years later during the Renaissance.
They are based on the written descriptions by Greek and Roman geographers, historians, astronomers, and travelers.)
Classifying Maps
• Have students sit in eight cooperative groups. Distribute sets of photocopied maps (A through H) to each group. After examining and discussing the maps, ask groups to classify the maps.They can put them in chronological order, by geographic accuracy, or by any other logical system. Ask them to justify their decisions. ("Additional Information on Historical Maps" for teacher is included.)
• To underscore the ancient quest for geographic knowledge, read the “Story of the Half-Drowned Sailor.”
Use a world map to indicate what the ancient Egyptians learned about the location of India and the importance of the
monsoon winds.
Guided Discussion
• Debrief the “ancient map” activity through discussion. Prepare overhead transparencies of the eight maps to give
additional details. (Note: the student maps have been “simplified” with extraneous place names deleted. Background information for each is provided for the teacher.)
What can we tell by examining these maps?
What is the Mediterranean view of the world?
What do students recognize as accurate?
(See Appendix A: ANCIENT MAPS #1 through 8).
NOTE: Additional Cartography and Mapping Skills Resources can be found on this GREAT site:
https://www.titlemax.com/articles/cartography-and-mapping-skills-for-transportation/
Thank you, Tyler & Cathy Hallman!
DEVELOPING THE TOPIC
Geography:
It is important to introduce the geography of the spice routes into the context of the ancient world. Students should know the location of China and India, but most will be unfamiliar with the geography of Southeast Asia.
As a teaching aid for this unit, the class will construct a large wall map for the study of the trading network. Depending on the wall space available, determine the size of your classroom’s “Spice Trade Map” accordingly. This can be a math activity (directions attached to enlarge) or the map can be made using an overhead projector with transparency traced onto butcher paper. Label oceans and rivers.
The Monsoons
The importance of the monsoon winds to the ancient sea trade cannot be overstated. The term "monsoon" refers to the seasonal weather conditions (strong winds and heavy rains) that characterize the climate of much of Asia. Blowing in alternate directions over the same routes at half-yearly intervals, the monsoon winds were used by Arab and Indian sailors to navigate long distances across the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal. Using this knowledge to their advantage, Arab and Indian traders were able to dominate the lucrative market by concealing the true source of their cargoes (Southeast Asia and India) for centuries.
Mediterranean sailors from Egypt and Rome were fearful of open-sea sailing and their ships "hugged the coastlines." They did not possess the navigational know-ledge (monsoon wind patterns) until the first century BC, when a marooned Indian sailor revealed the secret to Egyptian officials. During the century that followed, Rome's direct trade with India mushroomed in response to an ever-increasing demand for the luxury goods from Asia.
Reading Activity:
To underscore the ancient quest for geographic knowledge, read the “Story of the Half-Drowned Sailor.” Use a world map to indicate what the ancient Egyptians learned about the location of India and the importance of the monsoon winds. Sailing manuals (such as The Periplus) instructed skippers on the best months to depart from one port (using the winds) to quickly navigate to other distant ports. The return voyages would likewise be planned to take advantage of the reverse currents.
To indicate the location of the monsoons, draw arrows to show the seasonal winds (July and January) on the large classroom map. Direct students to draw arrows on their maps to show the same. Discuss how these winds would affect trade. Students should understand that sailors would stay for days or weeks at a particular port to wait for favorable weather. Ask students to consider where such ports were likely to be situated.
(See Appendix B: Map of Seasonal Monsoon System)
Entrepots
To identify major centers of trade along the maritime spice route, introduce the term “entrepot.”
To define the word, ask students:
• What physical factors would make a good trading center?
• What would you want if you sailed into an unfamiliar port with a valuable cargo of goods?
(Answers will include a variety of things we associate with port cities such as Oakland, Long Beach, or New York). Use the definition of entrepot to expand their understanding of this term.
(See Appendix C: Vocabulary)
Using the teacher's map as a guide, help students label the major trading centers from the Mediterranean to Southeast Asia
during the first century A.D. These entrepots will be the bases for the simulation:
• Rome
• Alexandria
• Aromata (East Africa)
• Musa (Arabia)
• Barygaza (India)
• Muziris (South India)
• Oc Eo (Cambodia)
• Cattigara (China)
(See Appendix D - The Spice Trade from the Mediterranean to Southeast Asia))
Questions:
• What geographic factors made these locations the logical sites for entrepots in ancient times?
(Sites are near major rivers where cities were already located. They are destinations affected by the monsoon winds).
• Do you notice any places shown on the ancient maps seen earlier?
Developing the Topic II:
PRIMARY SOURCE READINGS -- Trade Routes
In addition to the historic maps viewed in the opening activity, students will better understand the how ancient people viewed their world by reading written accounts. Some of these writings show the beginnings of accurate geographic knowledge; others reveal mythical views of distant lands. Other primary sources indicate the extraordinary value of spices which were equivalent to gold.
Distribute “Primary Source Records” giving one passage to each group. Have students read and discuss the passage.
Ask them to evaluate the source for accuracy. Using the world map, have groups present each passage to the class to underscore the incomplete knowledge of world geography during the Greco-Roman period.
Supplement student observations with additional information provided in background notes. Indicate the segmented nature of the ancient maritime trade based on the readings and the geographic knowledge at the time. Emphasize the fact that the two extremes on the trade route (Rome and China) knew very little about the other.
(See Appendix E - Primary Source Accounts)
Developing the Topic III:
BACKGROUND ON SPICES
The maritime trade in “spices” accelerated during the height of the Roman Empire due to the ever-increasing demands of the wealthy classes for exotic luxury goods. Ask students to brainstorm a list of what “luxury goods” might mean to some-one in ancient Rome, Egypt or China. (Examples should include jewelry and gem stones, textiles, art objects, exotic animals, foods and spices.) Draw parallels to their own lives to consider why goods have value and are costly. (Use economic terms: market, supply, scarcity, demand, need). Point out that today, rare or exotic goods can be quite costly and yet fashionable.
In classical times the term “spices” meant much more than flavorings for foods. Religious rituals required the burning of resins and incense to invoke the gods, to expel evil spirits, and to pay tribute to the emperors.
“Spices” came in the form of ointments, powders, wood, bark, roots, resins, and herbs and were used in countless ways:
§ Perfumes in powders (aromata)
Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt used cinnamon as an aromatic as early as 1,500 BC; the henna-flower perfume of the
Romans had cardamom added; rose perfume included ginger-grass. Both spices were first soaked in wine.
§ In cosmetics
§ Incense for religious ceremonies (thumiata)
Egyptian temples burned a rich compound of spices known as kuphi. Julius Caesar’s triumphal entrance into Rome
was preceded by attendants carrying jars of burning spices as if he was a god; Romans threw 210 loads of spices onto
the funeral pyre of Scylla.
§ Fumigants to purify the air
In the Ganges Valley, burning aloeswood was used both as a perfume and as a fumigant for use after surgery;
the Romans used cinnamon to protect clothing from moths.
§ Ingredients in healing ointments and medicinal drugs
Hippocrates, the Greek physician, prescribed pepper as a cure for disease. Dioscordes, an army physician, wrote
Materia Medica on the function of spices and for their prescriptive uses for healing. His text lists twenty two pure,
aromatic oils prescribed for specific ailments, such as safflower, sweet bay, myrrh, and myrtle, as well as twenty-
four compound ointments (made from herbs, resins, fragrant roots and woods) to be used for healing).
§ Preservatives (for embalming)
From earliest times, the Egyptians used rich mixtures of spices, including cloves as part of the mummification process.
Upon the death of Nero’s wife, Poppaea, a year’s imports of perfumes, including cinnamon, were sprinkled on her body
for embalming.
§ Antidotes against poisons (theriaca)
Crateuas, a famous physician, mentions a concoction using 36 ingredients; these include cumin, cardamom, anise,
cassia, ginger, Indian nard, and myrrh. Mixed with honey and wine, it was said that one could withstand the strongest
poison.
§ Love philtres and magical charms
§ For anesthesia in surgery
Early Greek writings mention the use of cloves and other spices for use during surgery.
§ For flavoring food and wine
Used to preserve foods as well as to flavor since earliest times. The first cookbook in the modern sense was written
by the Roman Apicius. The 478 recipes, primarily for the rich man’s table, were of wide variety and included exotic
ingredients and use of imported spices such as pepper, ginger, oil of cinnamon and turmeric.
§ As a valuable medium of exchange
Alaric of Gothe demanded 3,000 pounds of pepper from Rome in exchange for not sacking the city in 408 AD.
The sea trade was risky and often dangerous. It was also time-consuming and could take one or two years to complete the voyage. Myths and legends surrounded the origins of spices. Often traders were ignorant of the true origin of exotic goods they carried. It was also advantageous to conceal the source, because the strangeness and rarity of these spices meant that profits could be from forty to one hundred times the investment.
Refer students to the class lists of tasty foods, grooming products, cosmetics, and medicines. Can they imagine the demand in ancient times for similar goods?
Developing the Topic IV:
POSTERS ABOUT SPICES
A thriving trade in “spices” existed in the ancient world, but certain items were only grown in Southeast Asia, India or China. (See chapter two in Exploration by Sea for a good description of the spice routes.)
To learn about the major goods of the spice trade, students will return to their groups to make posters to “advertise” the following:
• cinnamon / cassia
• cloves
• nutmeg / mace
• ginger / turmeric
• aloeswood
• cardamom
• black pepper
• myrrh
• frankincense
Provide “spice” handouts (from Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine) and poster making supplies as needed. Additional images can be found in books or websites (see references list). Each poster should display the following information:
• common name of plant/spice (title of poster)
• drawing of the plant
• parts of plant used
• habitat (name of countries where grown)
• traditional and current (medicinal) uses
Developing the Activity V: Misinformation about Spices
This short activity is designed to show students how misinformation and exaggeration (about the origins of spices) occurred in ancient times.
To do this, remind the class of the children's game of "telephone." The teacher will whisper a short tale about the origin of storax to a student on one side of the classroom. One by one, each student will whisper this "secret information" to the next person. (It is quite likely that the message will not travel accurately very far!)
"The people are tall. . . (and look like) the Chinese. That's why it is called Great Ch'in. The land produces the rhino which frightens chickens. They collect various fragrances and boil the juice to make storax."
ASSESSMENT:
* Artifact Box summary
* Spice Poster (group work/presentation)
* Trade Simulation artifact(s)
* Map labeling: trade routes, exports and archaeological evidence
* Trade Simulation Participation
* Trade Simulation Discussion
* Five paragraph summary
EXTENSIONS:
• Read chapters 1, 2 and 3 The Silk and Spice Routes: Exploration by Sea. Discuss the ways this book confirms or enhances
understanding of the trade in spices.
• Distribute “Archaeological Artifact: Funan” handouts to students. Examine the images to discuss these questions: What do
you see? Where did the item originate? What do these discoveries indicate about contact with Southeast Asia during ancient
times?
• Students can research ancient shipbuilding and draw examples of the various distinctive sailing vessels from each culture.
• Make a dish that features a particular spice as an important ingredient. Have cinnamon, ginger, cloves, cardamom, nutmeg,
mace or pepper featured.
• Students can research the following topics in science or English classes:
ocean winds and currents
natural resources
land transportation
sailing ships
money and barter
piracy and perils
geographic obstacles to trade
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andaya, Barbara Watson and Leonard Andaya. A History of Malaysia. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982.
Andaya, Leonard. The World of Maluku. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993.
Begley, Vilma and Richard Daniel DePuma, ed., Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin
Press, 1991.
Berthon, Simon and Andrew Robinson. The Shape of the World. New York, NY: Rand McNally, 1991.
Boorstein, Daniel J. The Discoverers. New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1983.
Brierly, Joanna Hall. Spices, The Story of Indonesia's Spice Trade. Oxford; Singapore; New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Cady, John F., Southeast Asia and Its Historical Development. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964.
Casson, Lionel. The Ancient Mariners, Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times, 2nd ed. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.
Casson, Lionel. Ancient Trade and Society, Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press,1984.
Casson, Lionel. The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,1989.
Chandler, David. A History of Cambodia. 2nd ed., Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996.
Chevallier, Andrew. Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine. New York, NY: DK Publishing Inc., 1996.
Coedes, G. and Walter F. Vella, ed. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia., Honolulu: East-West Center Press, 1964.
Coedes, G. The Making of South East Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962.
Dalby, Andrew, Dangerous Tastes: the Story of Spices. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000.
Dalby, Andrew, Siren Feasts: a History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece. New York, NY: Rutledge Publishing, 1996.
Doshi, Saryu, ed., India and Egypt, Influences and Interactions. Bombay, India: Marg Publications, 1993.
Haellquist, Karl Reinhold, ed., Asian Trade Routes, Continental and Maritime. Copenhagen Denmark: Scandinavian Institute of
Asian Studies, 1991.
Hall, D. G. E., A History of Southeast Asia. London: MacMillan & Co., Ltd.; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1955.
Hirth, Friedrich.Chau Ju-kua: On the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. New York, NY: Paragon
Book Reprint Corp., 1966.
Hirth, Friedrich. China and the Roman Orient.: Researches into their Ancient and Medieval Relations as Represented in Old
Chinese Records. New York, NY: Paragon Book Reprint Corp., 1966.
Javaid, Mahad. "Fall's favorite spice blend has a violent history." Washington Post, October 6, 2023.
Lach, Donald F. Asia in the Making of Europe. Volume I: The Century of Discovery. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1965.
Leslie, D.D. and K.H.J. Gardiner. The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources. Rome: Bardi Editore, 1996.
Liu, Xinru. Ancient India and Ancient China. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press,1988.
Loane, Helen Jefferson. "Vespasian's Spice Market and Tribute in Kind." Classical Philology, 1944: 10 - 21.
Mahindru, Som Nath. Spices in Indian Life: 6,500 B.C. - 1950 A.D. New Delhi, IN: Sultan Chand, 1982.
Miller, J. Innes. The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire, 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 1969.
Mookerji, Radhakumud. Indian Shipping: A History of the Sea-Borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians From the Earliest
Times. Allahabad, India: Kitab Mahal, 1962.
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, annotated by Wilfred H. Schoff, New York, NY: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.
Pluvier, Jan M. Historical Atlas of South East Asia. New York, NY: E. J. Brill, 1995.
Pollet, Gilbert. India and the Ancient World: History, Trade and Culture Before A.D. 650. Leuven: Departement Orientalistiek, 1987.
Pomeranz, Kenneth and Steven Topik. The World That Trade Created: Society, Culture, and the World Economy,1400 to the
Present. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc. 1999.
Prasad, Prakash Charan. Foreign Trade and Commerce in Ancient India. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1977.
Purseglove, J. W., et al. Spices. Essex, UK: Longman Group Limited, 1981.
Reid, Anthony. Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450-1680, Volume I: The Lands Below the Winds. New Haven and
London: Yale Univeristy Press, 1988.
Silk Road Encounters, Sourcebook & Teachers Guide, The Asia Society and The Silk Road Project, Inc. , 2001.
Stella, Alain. The Book of Spices. New York: Flammarion, 1999.
Suarez, Thomas. Early Mapping of Southeast Asia. Hong Kong: Periplus Publications, 1999.
Warmington, E. H. The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India. London: Curson Press; New York, NY: Octagon Press,
1974.
Welch, Jeanie. The Spice Trade: a Bibliographic Guide to Sources of Historical and Economic Information. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 1994.
Wheatley, Paul. The Golden Khersonese. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaysia Press, 1961.
Wolters, O. W., Early Indonesian Commerce. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967.
STUDENT RESOURCES
Caputo, Robert. "Swahili Coast: East Africa's Ancient Crossroads." National Geographic. October 2001: 104 - 119.
Chevallier, Andrew. Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine. New York, NY: DK Publishing Inc., 1996.
Edwards, Mike. "The Adventures of Marco Polo, Part 1." National Geographic: May 2001: 2 - 30.
Edwards, Mike. "Marco Polo in China, Part II." National Geographic: June 2001: 20 - 45.
Edwards, Mike. "Marco Polo, Part III: Journey Home." National Geographic: July 2001: 26 - 47.
Hansen, Eric. "The Hidden History of a Scented Wood." Saudi Aramco World. November/December 2000: 2-13.
Javaid, Mahad. "Fall's favorite spice blend has a violent history." Washington Post, October 6, 2023.
Reid, Struan. The Silk and Spices Routes: Exploration by Sea. London: Belitha Press, 1993.
Reid, Struan. The Silk and Spices Routes: Inventions and Trade. London: Belitha Press, 1993.
Schneider, Mical. Between the Dragon and the Eagle. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 1997.
Strathern, Paul. The Silk and Spices Routes: Exploration by Land. London: Belitha Press, 1993.
WEBSITES
Antique Maps of the World. Digital Wisdom, Inc.
Map Machine. National Geographic Society.
Silk Road Foundation/UNESCO
NOTE: Additional Cartography and Mapping Skills Resources can be found on this GREAT site:
https://www.titlemax.com/articles/cartography-and-mapping-skills-for-transportation/
Thank you, Tyler & Cathy Hallman!
This curriculum/simulation unit can be found on the ORIAS website at the University of California, Berkeley
Click here to go the the ORIAS website.
For more than three thousand years, the ancient world was linked by elaborate trading routes that linked the Mediterranean world with the faraway lands of Asia. As caravans carried exotic goods on the Silk Road to burgeoning markets in the west, a parallel ocean trade had existed for centuries. A complex network of sailing ships, dependent on seasonal monsoon winds, carried cargoes from islands in Southeast Asia to ports throughout the ancient world. The demand for these fragrant spices, worth their weight in gold, spurred a search for routes to the mysterious “Golden Kherso-nese.” The location, Chryse, which means “land of gold” was concealed for centuries by merchants eager to protect their lucrative trade. Geographers, astronomers, and sailors soon created the maps that charted new understandings of our world.
This integrated unit introduces students to the trading networks and geographic factors that influenced the maritime spice trade from Southeast Asia to the Roman Empire and Han China during the period 100 BC to 100 AD. Students work in coopera-tive groups in a series of activities to learn how the ancient world was inter-connected by this sea trade. This unit would be most effective if taught at the end of a yearlong study of ancient world history or as an introductory unit to the Age of Exploration. It presumes a basic knowledge of the major civilizations of the ancient world.
GRADE LEVEL: 6th or 7th TIME REQUIRED: Two weeks
WORLD HISTORY STANDARDS:
6.6 “Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures of the early civilizations of
China. (7) Cite the significance of the trans-Eurasian "silk roads" in the period of the Han Dynasty and the Roman
Empire and their locations.”
6.7 “Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures during the development of
Rome. (3) Identify the location of and the political and geographic reasons for the growth of Roman territories and
expansion of the empire, including how the empire fostered economic growth through the use of currency and trade
routes.”
FOCUS QUESTION: How did spices get to the Roman Empire from Southeast Asia in ancient times?
OBJECTIVES
Geographic: • Recognize environmental factors that influenced maritime trade routes and the establishment of major trading
centers in classical times.
• Identify the major imports and exports of the cultures along the coastal trade routes.
• Identify the major regions and islands that comprise Southeast Asia.
Historical: • Evaluate perceptions of the ancient world (especially the fabled “Golden Khersonese”) through ancient maps and
primary source travelers’ accounts.
• Discuss implications of archaeological evidence recently discovered.
Economic: • Study the spices that were imported from Southeast Asia that were the objects of international trade.
• Recognize the economic factors that effected the trade in luxury goods. Experience the principles of “market
supply, scarcity, and demand” in a simulated trading activity.
LESSON
Introductory Activities
ANTICIPATING QUESTIONS
This unit begins by asking students to brainstorm lists of everyday natural products that we take for granted today. The class can work in three groups or this can be done as a whole class activity. Groups could also make a collage of images from magazines to develop the idea.
• Begin by naming favorite dishes they enjoy for dinner - what is popular? Why? Try to identify specific ingredients or
flavors that account for their love of these foods. Encourage them to name foods that may have originated in other
cultures. What unusual ingredients can they name? Can they name the countries where specific foods or spices
originated?
• Do the above activity with fragrances. See if the students can list all the ways our society uses scents (perfume,
cologne, lotions, room deodorants, incense, potpourri). Can they name specific fragrances or brand names? Are some
scents associated with certain cultures or countries?
Display the class list so that more things can be added as the unit progresses.
• The third prompt asks students to name all those items (and ingredients) that are used as medicines. Broaden this
category to include poisons, fumigants, insecticides and ointments. Ask the class if they know where the ingredients
originate. (As an alternative, the teacher can bring a bag of groceries to introduce the unit. Unpack items such as olive
oil, chocolate, tuna, cereal, fragrant lotion, hand soap, cough syrup and insecticide. Ask or assign students to determine
where each item came from.
Information on the history and current uses of individual spices at the Spice Encyclopedia web page posted by today's spice merchants at Spice Advice Encyclopedia
Introductory Activity II: ARTIFACTS
The second introductory activity creates anticipation and gives the class some hints about what they’re about to learn.
Open your “artifact box” (which you’ve pre-pared in advance) that contains the following:
• Roman coin
• a packet of cloves or peppercorns
• excerpt from the Periplus
• an Egyptian glass bead
• incense
• a piece of silk.
As each item is revealed, have the students consider the collection and pretend that they are archaeologists. Tell the class
that this mysterious box, found buried along the Malabar Coast in Southwest India, has come to your classroom for analysis.
What “story” does this box tell?
What does the Roman coin reveal?
What does the text tell?
Where did silk originate?
Why are the items together?
Why were they found in India?
The teacher should encourage ideas that mention a range of goods from different, distant cultures. Travel by ship and some knowledge of coastal geography and monsoon winds are revealed by the Periplus. Focus student inquiry on these questions:
What was carried by sea?
What is the meaning of the spices?
How were these items used?
Might the items indicate the barter or trade?
Who were the traders or sailors?
What cultures would be involved in moving goods?
How far did they travel?
How far did the goods travel?
Was this the final destination?
Writing Prompt
After the students express their various ideas, ask them to write an imaginary story that explains the “find.” (The discovery of this collection of artifacts is fictional; they cannot be identified precisely. This “into”activity is designed to interest and inspire the class for the investigation that follows).
Developing the Topic I: HISTORIC MAPS
The artifact box activity above should show the interconnectedness of cultures and some exchange of goods. It should raise questions about the actual geography. (Where are we? Who were these people? What did they know?) The examination
of historic maps gives students the opportunity to speculate on Greco-Roman perceptions of the “shape of the world.”
(Note to the teacher: these maps are reconstructions made 1,200 to 1,300 years later during the Renaissance.
They are based on the written descriptions by Greek and Roman geographers, historians, astronomers, and travelers.)
Classifying Maps
• Have students sit in eight cooperative groups. Distribute sets of photocopied maps (A through H) to each group. After examining and discussing the maps, ask groups to classify the maps.They can put them in chronological order, by geographic accuracy, or by any other logical system. Ask them to justify their decisions. ("Additional Information on Historical Maps" for teacher is included.)
• To underscore the ancient quest for geographic knowledge, read the “Story of the Half-Drowned Sailor.”
Use a world map to indicate what the ancient Egyptians learned about the location of India and the importance of the
monsoon winds.
Guided Discussion
• Debrief the “ancient map” activity through discussion. Prepare overhead transparencies of the eight maps to give
additional details. (Note: the student maps have been “simplified” with extraneous place names deleted. Background information for each is provided for the teacher.)
What can we tell by examining these maps?
What is the Mediterranean view of the world?
What do students recognize as accurate?
(See Appendix A: ANCIENT MAPS #1 through 8).
NOTE: Additional Cartography and Mapping Skills Resources can be found on this GREAT site:
https://www.titlemax.com/articles/cartography-and-mapping-skills-for-transportation/
Thank you, Tyler & Cathy Hallman!
DEVELOPING THE TOPIC
Geography:
It is important to introduce the geography of the spice routes into the context of the ancient world. Students should know the location of China and India, but most will be unfamiliar with the geography of Southeast Asia.
As a teaching aid for this unit, the class will construct a large wall map for the study of the trading network. Depending on the wall space available, determine the size of your classroom’s “Spice Trade Map” accordingly. This can be a math activity (directions attached to enlarge) or the map can be made using an overhead projector with transparency traced onto butcher paper. Label oceans and rivers.
The Monsoons
The importance of the monsoon winds to the ancient sea trade cannot be overstated. The term "monsoon" refers to the seasonal weather conditions (strong winds and heavy rains) that characterize the climate of much of Asia. Blowing in alternate directions over the same routes at half-yearly intervals, the monsoon winds were used by Arab and Indian sailors to navigate long distances across the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal. Using this knowledge to their advantage, Arab and Indian traders were able to dominate the lucrative market by concealing the true source of their cargoes (Southeast Asia and India) for centuries.
Mediterranean sailors from Egypt and Rome were fearful of open-sea sailing and their ships "hugged the coastlines." They did not possess the navigational know-ledge (monsoon wind patterns) until the first century BC, when a marooned Indian sailor revealed the secret to Egyptian officials. During the century that followed, Rome's direct trade with India mushroomed in response to an ever-increasing demand for the luxury goods from Asia.
Reading Activity:
To underscore the ancient quest for geographic knowledge, read the “Story of the Half-Drowned Sailor.” Use a world map to indicate what the ancient Egyptians learned about the location of India and the importance of the monsoon winds. Sailing manuals (such as The Periplus) instructed skippers on the best months to depart from one port (using the winds) to quickly navigate to other distant ports. The return voyages would likewise be planned to take advantage of the reverse currents.
To indicate the location of the monsoons, draw arrows to show the seasonal winds (July and January) on the large classroom map. Direct students to draw arrows on their maps to show the same. Discuss how these winds would affect trade. Students should understand that sailors would stay for days or weeks at a particular port to wait for favorable weather. Ask students to consider where such ports were likely to be situated.
(See Appendix B: Map of Seasonal Monsoon System)
Entrepots
To identify major centers of trade along the maritime spice route, introduce the term “entrepot.”
To define the word, ask students:
• What physical factors would make a good trading center?
• What would you want if you sailed into an unfamiliar port with a valuable cargo of goods?
(Answers will include a variety of things we associate with port cities such as Oakland, Long Beach, or New York). Use the definition of entrepot to expand their understanding of this term.
(See Appendix C: Vocabulary)
Using the teacher's map as a guide, help students label the major trading centers from the Mediterranean to Southeast Asia
during the first century A.D. These entrepots will be the bases for the simulation:
• Rome
• Alexandria
• Aromata (East Africa)
• Musa (Arabia)
• Barygaza (India)
• Muziris (South India)
• Oc Eo (Cambodia)
• Cattigara (China)
(See Appendix D - The Spice Trade from the Mediterranean to Southeast Asia))
Questions:
• What geographic factors made these locations the logical sites for entrepots in ancient times?
(Sites are near major rivers where cities were already located. They are destinations affected by the monsoon winds).
• Do you notice any places shown on the ancient maps seen earlier?
Developing the Topic II:
PRIMARY SOURCE READINGS -- Trade Routes
In addition to the historic maps viewed in the opening activity, students will better understand the how ancient people viewed their world by reading written accounts. Some of these writings show the beginnings of accurate geographic knowledge; others reveal mythical views of distant lands. Other primary sources indicate the extraordinary value of spices which were equivalent to gold.
Distribute “Primary Source Records” giving one passage to each group. Have students read and discuss the passage.
Ask them to evaluate the source for accuracy. Using the world map, have groups present each passage to the class to underscore the incomplete knowledge of world geography during the Greco-Roman period.
Supplement student observations with additional information provided in background notes. Indicate the segmented nature of the ancient maritime trade based on the readings and the geographic knowledge at the time. Emphasize the fact that the two extremes on the trade route (Rome and China) knew very little about the other.
(See Appendix E - Primary Source Accounts)
Developing the Topic III:
BACKGROUND ON SPICES
The maritime trade in “spices” accelerated during the height of the Roman Empire due to the ever-increasing demands of the wealthy classes for exotic luxury goods. Ask students to brainstorm a list of what “luxury goods” might mean to some-one in ancient Rome, Egypt or China. (Examples should include jewelry and gem stones, textiles, art objects, exotic animals, foods and spices.) Draw parallels to their own lives to consider why goods have value and are costly. (Use economic terms: market, supply, scarcity, demand, need). Point out that today, rare or exotic goods can be quite costly and yet fashionable.
In classical times the term “spices” meant much more than flavorings for foods. Religious rituals required the burning of resins and incense to invoke the gods, to expel evil spirits, and to pay tribute to the emperors.
“Spices” came in the form of ointments, powders, wood, bark, roots, resins, and herbs and were used in countless ways:
§ Perfumes in powders (aromata)
Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt used cinnamon as an aromatic as early as 1,500 BC; the henna-flower perfume of the
Romans had cardamom added; rose perfume included ginger-grass. Both spices were first soaked in wine.
§ In cosmetics
§ Incense for religious ceremonies (thumiata)
Egyptian temples burned a rich compound of spices known as kuphi. Julius Caesar’s triumphal entrance into Rome
was preceded by attendants carrying jars of burning spices as if he was a god; Romans threw 210 loads of spices onto
the funeral pyre of Scylla.
§ Fumigants to purify the air
In the Ganges Valley, burning aloeswood was used both as a perfume and as a fumigant for use after surgery;
the Romans used cinnamon to protect clothing from moths.
§ Ingredients in healing ointments and medicinal drugs
Hippocrates, the Greek physician, prescribed pepper as a cure for disease. Dioscordes, an army physician, wrote
Materia Medica on the function of spices and for their prescriptive uses for healing. His text lists twenty two pure,
aromatic oils prescribed for specific ailments, such as safflower, sweet bay, myrrh, and myrtle, as well as twenty-
four compound ointments (made from herbs, resins, fragrant roots and woods) to be used for healing).
§ Preservatives (for embalming)
From earliest times, the Egyptians used rich mixtures of spices, including cloves as part of the mummification process.
Upon the death of Nero’s wife, Poppaea, a year’s imports of perfumes, including cinnamon, were sprinkled on her body
for embalming.
§ Antidotes against poisons (theriaca)
Crateuas, a famous physician, mentions a concoction using 36 ingredients; these include cumin, cardamom, anise,
cassia, ginger, Indian nard, and myrrh. Mixed with honey and wine, it was said that one could withstand the strongest
poison.
§ Love philtres and magical charms
§ For anesthesia in surgery
Early Greek writings mention the use of cloves and other spices for use during surgery.
§ For flavoring food and wine
Used to preserve foods as well as to flavor since earliest times. The first cookbook in the modern sense was written
by the Roman Apicius. The 478 recipes, primarily for the rich man’s table, were of wide variety and included exotic
ingredients and use of imported spices such as pepper, ginger, oil of cinnamon and turmeric.
§ As a valuable medium of exchange
Alaric of Gothe demanded 3,000 pounds of pepper from Rome in exchange for not sacking the city in 408 AD.
The sea trade was risky and often dangerous. It was also time-consuming and could take one or two years to complete the voyage. Myths and legends surrounded the origins of spices. Often traders were ignorant of the true origin of exotic goods they carried. It was also advantageous to conceal the source, because the strangeness and rarity of these spices meant that profits could be from forty to one hundred times the investment.
Refer students to the class lists of tasty foods, grooming products, cosmetics, and medicines. Can they imagine the demand in ancient times for similar goods?
Developing the Topic IV:
POSTERS ABOUT SPICES
A thriving trade in “spices” existed in the ancient world, but certain items were only grown in Southeast Asia, India or China. (See chapter two in Exploration by Sea for a good description of the spice routes.)
To learn about the major goods of the spice trade, students will return to their groups to make posters to “advertise” the following:
• cinnamon / cassia
• cloves
• nutmeg / mace
• ginger / turmeric
• aloeswood
• cardamom
• black pepper
• myrrh
• frankincense
Provide “spice” handouts (from Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine) and poster making supplies as needed. Additional images can be found in books or websites (see references list). Each poster should display the following information:
• common name of plant/spice (title of poster)
• drawing of the plant
• parts of plant used
• habitat (name of countries where grown)
• traditional and current (medicinal) uses
Developing the Activity V: Misinformation about Spices
This short activity is designed to show students how misinformation and exaggeration (about the origins of spices) occurred in ancient times.
To do this, remind the class of the children's game of "telephone." The teacher will whisper a short tale about the origin of storax to a student on one side of the classroom. One by one, each student will whisper this "secret information" to the next person. (It is quite likely that the message will not travel accurately very far!)
"The people are tall. . . (and look like) the Chinese. That's why it is called Great Ch'in. The land produces the rhino which frightens chickens. They collect various fragrances and boil the juice to make storax."
ASSESSMENT:
* Artifact Box summary
* Spice Poster (group work/presentation)
* Trade Simulation artifact(s)
* Map labeling: trade routes, exports and archaeological evidence
* Trade Simulation Participation
* Trade Simulation Discussion
* Five paragraph summary
EXTENSIONS:
• Read chapters 1, 2 and 3 The Silk and Spice Routes: Exploration by Sea. Discuss the ways this book confirms or enhances
understanding of the trade in spices.
• Distribute “Archaeological Artifact: Funan” handouts to students. Examine the images to discuss these questions: What do
you see? Where did the item originate? What do these discoveries indicate about contact with Southeast Asia during ancient
times?
• Students can research ancient shipbuilding and draw examples of the various distinctive sailing vessels from each culture.
• Make a dish that features a particular spice as an important ingredient. Have cinnamon, ginger, cloves, cardamom, nutmeg,
mace or pepper featured.
• Students can research the following topics in science or English classes:
ocean winds and currents
natural resources
land transportation
sailing ships
money and barter
piracy and perils
geographic obstacles to trade
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Andaya, Leonard. The World of Maluku. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993.
Begley, Vilma and Richard Daniel DePuma, ed., Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin
Press, 1991.
Berthon, Simon and Andrew Robinson. The Shape of the World. New York, NY: Rand McNally, 1991.
Boorstein, Daniel J. The Discoverers. New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1983.
Brierly, Joanna Hall. Spices, The Story of Indonesia's Spice Trade. Oxford; Singapore; New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Cady, John F., Southeast Asia and Its Historical Development. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964.
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NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.
Casson, Lionel. Ancient Trade and Society, Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press,1984.
Casson, Lionel. The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,1989.
Chandler, David. A History of Cambodia. 2nd ed., Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996.
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Coedes, G. and Walter F. Vella, ed. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia., Honolulu: East-West Center Press, 1964.
Coedes, G. The Making of South East Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962.
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Dalby, Andrew, Siren Feasts: a History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece. New York, NY: Rutledge Publishing, 1996.
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Mahindru, Som Nath. Spices in Indian Life: 6,500 B.C. - 1950 A.D. New Delhi, IN: Sultan Chand, 1982.
Miller, J. Innes. The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire, 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 1969.
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The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, annotated by Wilfred H. Schoff, New York, NY: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.
Pluvier, Jan M. Historical Atlas of South East Asia. New York, NY: E. J. Brill, 1995.
Pollet, Gilbert. India and the Ancient World: History, Trade and Culture Before A.D. 650. Leuven: Departement Orientalistiek, 1987.
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Purseglove, J. W., et al. Spices. Essex, UK: Longman Group Limited, 1981.
Reid, Anthony. Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450-1680, Volume I: The Lands Below the Winds. New Haven and
London: Yale Univeristy Press, 1988.
Silk Road Encounters, Sourcebook & Teachers Guide, The Asia Society and The Silk Road Project, Inc. , 2001.
Stella, Alain. The Book of Spices. New York: Flammarion, 1999.
Suarez, Thomas. Early Mapping of Southeast Asia. Hong Kong: Periplus Publications, 1999.
Warmington, E. H. The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India. London: Curson Press; New York, NY: Octagon Press,
1974.
Welch, Jeanie. The Spice Trade: a Bibliographic Guide to Sources of Historical and Economic Information. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 1994.
Wheatley, Paul. The Golden Khersonese. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaysia Press, 1961.
Wolters, O. W., Early Indonesian Commerce. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967.
STUDENT RESOURCES
Caputo, Robert. "Swahili Coast: East Africa's Ancient Crossroads." National Geographic. October 2001: 104 - 119.
Chevallier, Andrew. Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine. New York, NY: DK Publishing Inc., 1996.
Edwards, Mike. "The Adventures of Marco Polo, Part 1." National Geographic: May 2001: 2 - 30.
Edwards, Mike. "Marco Polo in China, Part II." National Geographic: June 2001: 20 - 45.
Edwards, Mike. "Marco Polo, Part III: Journey Home." National Geographic: July 2001: 26 - 47.
Hansen, Eric. "The Hidden History of a Scented Wood." Saudi Aramco World. November/December 2000: 2-13.
Javaid, Mahad. "Fall's favorite spice blend has a violent history." Washington Post, October 6, 2023.
Reid, Struan. The Silk and Spices Routes: Exploration by Sea. London: Belitha Press, 1993.
Reid, Struan. The Silk and Spices Routes: Inventions and Trade. London: Belitha Press, 1993.
Schneider, Mical. Between the Dragon and the Eagle. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 1997.
Strathern, Paul. The Silk and Spices Routes: Exploration by Land. London: Belitha Press, 1993.
WEBSITES
Antique Maps of the World. Digital Wisdom, Inc.
Map Machine. National Geographic Society.
Silk Road Foundation/UNESCO
NOTE: Additional Cartography and Mapping Skills Resources can be found on this GREAT site:
https://www.titlemax.com/articles/cartography-and-mapping-skills-for-transportation/
Thank you, Tyler & Cathy Hallman!
This curriculum/simulation unit can be found on the ORIAS website at the University of California, Berkeley
Click here to go the the ORIAS website.